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International Marketing Research
Introduction
The task of running a questionnaire-based survey simultaneously in China and the UK regarding how people spend their leisure time and the kinds of satisfaction that they derive from their activities as part of international marketing research is very challenging in this global market and age. There are many considerations in the design and translation of the questionnaire as well as potential sources of bias. This paper will discuss the considerations, pitfalls, equivalence of data, sources of bias and marketing research methodology. There will also be a discussion on methodology issues in cross-cultural sourcing research, an insight into a project-life cycle with foreign colleagues, cultural differences and finally the questionnaire survey translation will be discussed.
Considerations
There are many considerations in the design and translation of the questionnaire. Designing a research process for international marketing decision making is considerably more complex than designing it for a single country. The issues that affect the design are as follows (Kumar et. al., 1999, p84):-
1. Understanding the nature and type of information sought
In designing a questionnaire, it is necessary to test out hypotheses based on a research question and it will help to narrow down the scope of the research process.
2. Defining the relevant unit of analysis
This is in line with the research scope where data will be compiled and then compared and it is important to determine the unit of analysis at the design process.
3. Formulating problems, variable specifications and categories
In this context, problems do exist and marketing research planning must do some projections and what-if scenarios to anticipate the scope of the research problems. It is also necessary to identify all the various independent, intervening and dependent variables in order to answer the hypotheses (Neuman, 1999, p35). It is also necessary to categorize the relevant areas of research interest to emphasize their importance in the research process.
4. Identifying and selecting sources of information
This is a decision making research process which must identify the respondents. Questions such as earnings, gender, lifestyle or education level can influence the selection of respondents. Consideration is needed to differentiate UK respondents and respondents in China due to cultural differences.
5. Determining availability and comparability of data
There should be some triangulation where correlation of data is needed to show reliability and validity of primary data collected in the research. Data can be obtained from secondary sources such as existing market consumption in the area of travel and tour packages sold, leisure activities
such as football tickets sold, easy chairs sold, or any other form of statistics which are published by market research firms on leisure activities.
6. Achieving equivalence of samples and measures across countries and cultures
Equivalence is an important issue because data collected must be comparable between these two countries. This will enable the results to show uniformity. If equivalence is low, then the research will not have a high validity rating. Equivalence is described in detail below.
7. Identifying the degree of centralization of the research
Centralization of the research is a question of importance because time and coverage of the research should be considered. In this international survey, it is possible that the research process may be controlled in these two countries UK and China. A decentralized choice may be preferable. The initial training of the chief field researcher of both countries may take place in UK and then the focus of the research will then be limited to their respective countries. After the collection of data is completed, the compilation of data will again go back to UK or a centralized location.
8. Coordinating research across countries
Since this research only covers two countries, the coordinators for the research may be based in UK or if the scope of the research work is large, then coordinators may reside in both countries. This subject will be discussed in further detail under the topic “Doing Research with Foreign Colleagues”.
9. Finding errors in the research design
This area of research design needs qualitative research, pilot testing and pre-test results. Eliminating errors of ambiguity in question phrasing is important here. The choice of using open-ended or close-ended questions should also be considered. This stage will determine the quality of the research results.
10. Learning the cost of conducting research in multiple countries
Research conducted in multiple countries involves a lot of coordination effort and this requires traveling or telephone calls. These are but only a few of the known costs. Other costs may include short period of residences by trainers or researchers while conducting the survey. Therefore some marketing research companies may prefer using the internet but again this will come to part 4 where respondent selection needs to be determined as well as computer literacy among respondents must be identified. This paper will concentrate on the one-to-one survey method.
Pitfalls of conducting an international research
There are key pitfalls to avoid when conducting international research. They are listed as follows (Kumar et al, 1999, p87):-
1. Selecting a domestic research company to do your international research
This is an unwise decision because a domestic research company may not have the expertise needed in international research.
2. Rigidly standardizing methodologies across countries
Research methodologies should not be rigidly followed in the UK and in China because there are differences in culture and different perceptions in different countries. This will be discussed in detail later.
3. Interviewing in English around the world
Conducting the research in the English language may not give the correct results because of meanings found in English but not understood by a non-native speaker of the language.
4. Setting inappropriate sampling requirements
Sampling is an important consideration and literacy plays an important role. If the target sampling respondents are illiterate, the questionnaire would be useless for those who cannot read or write.
5. Lack of consideration given to language
Translations into Chinese for the respondents in China must be checked carefully. A quality control procedure such as “back-translation” should be observed. This will enable equivalence in the English language copy and the translated copy. This will be discussed further in the topic Survey Translation Issues.
6. Lack of systematic international communication procedures
Communications between counterparts need to be explicit because the overall purpose must be clearly understood in UK and in China. This means avoiding any assumptions that may be due to beliefs and norms found in different countries.
7. Misinterpreting multicountry data across countries
When analysing data from across countries, it must be clearly understood that certain data may not have the same results because China and UK may have differences in local market conditions, maturity of the market among others.
8. Not understanding international differences in conducting qualitative research
Qualitative research is one area of determining research design and may involve focus groups or group discussions. In a cultural context, some participants may be sensitive and thus may not provide the correct observation for the researcher and hence, may impact the overall research design.
Equivalence of Data
Van Kerk et. al. (2004) stated that “little empirical research is available on customs, habits, attitudes, and reactions to marketing efforts in different regions” (p352). In order for companies to make well-founded decisions, the demand for international marketing research information has seen a gradual worldwide increase. Van Kerk et. al. continued with saying that the data comparison should have the same meaning across countries otherwise biased or in equivalent information will cause ambiguity in the data which can lead to erroneous conclusions. Thus, “the equivalence or comparability of data collected across
countries is regarded as a key issue” but nevertheless, “despite its importance, the equivalence of data is usually not examined and most culture comparative
studies do not address equivalence issues”. Part of the reason for this shortcoming could be due to lack of clarity in literature and the difficulty of analysing equivalence in data. They then proceeded to “provide a framework for establishing equivalence that may help reduce the confusion, and better integrate measures that can be taken to avoid or deal with bias in data”.
They conclude that construct bias is the most important one and the prevalent type of bias in the first two stages in the marketing research process. “Construct bias precludes any form of comparison, making cross-national comparisons ambiguous or even erroneous” (p361). They stated that if a certain level of equivalence is attained than certain comparisons can be made otherwise comparisons between countries are not allowed. Their findings have an important implication for the management of international companies. It can help managers to establish the extent to which consumer perceptions are equal across countries. These perceptions are construct equivalence and if the level of equivalence is known, “it will provide business value, as the risk of making a wrong decision decreases” (p361).
Sources of bias
There are three sources of bias based on van Kerk et. al., Yaveroglu et. al. and Malhotra et. al. Van Kerk highlighted “bias in the research process” while Yaveroglu discussed “response bias” and Malhotra brought up “researcher bias”.
Bias in the research process
Bias can occur in every stage of the research process. There are three kinds of bias which includes construct bias, method bias, and item bias (van Kerk et. al., p 355)
a. Construct bias occurs when studied in different countries that has a different cultural understanding. They gave one example where “the use of butter for baking in one country cannot be compared with the use of butter for spreading in another country, and as a consequence, attitudes towards butter will reflect quite different notions about the use of butter”.
b. Method bias refers to instances where all or most items in a questionnaire are equally affected by a factor that is independent of the construct studied. Method bias can be due to interviewers (interviewer-interviewee interaction), the research method (telephone, mail or personal interviewing), or background characteristics of respondents, such as age or social class.
c. Item bias refers to distortions in specific items in the instrument. Suppose, we employ a multi-item scale on “health consciousness” and an item is included on “visiting a fitness club at least once a week”. With an equal average concern about “health consciousness” in two groups, but differential availability of health clubs, the answer “no” obviously will have a different meaning. In such instances, we say that the item is biased (p356).
All the above bias can be viewed in Table 1 in the Appendices.
Response bias
Yaveroglu et.al. (2003) commented that “self-reported survey data is subject to biases and errors” (p366). The cognitive ability inherent or developed in an individual will lead to response bias.
Reynolds (2000) stated that response bias is a covert problem in international marketing research. This bias can be differentiated into response sets and response style.
Response sets refer to a respondent's “desire, at either a conscious or an unconscious level, to give a particular picture of oneself by the way one responds'' and includes social desirability bias and acquiescence. In contrast a respondent's tendency to answer in a manner that is unrelated to test content, but which is related to the form of the stimulus, is referred to as response style (p348). Reynolds concluded that commercial international marketing researchers are less aware of how to deal with response bias (p356).
Researcher bias
In the context of cross-cultural interpretation of research data, if a researcher from one culture were to interpret all multicountry data, the researcher's interpretation can be bias (Malhotra et.al, p36).
Marketing Research Methodology
There are several marketing research differences such as foreign research, multinational research and international marketing research. According to
Malhotra et. al. (1996), there is some fine distinctions which cannot be denied but for ease of reference they will call it as cross-cultural marketing research. Malhotra et. al mentioned that “further expansion and development of cross-cultural marketing research is being hampered by methodological problems” (p7).
Their objective is to sensitize cross-cultural marketing researchers to the various methodological issues which should be considered if unequivocal findings are to emerge. They also provide guidelines for addressing these issues. These methodological issues will be organized around the six-step framework which is as follows: -
1. Describe the marketing research process: problem definition
The problem definition is more complex than in domestic marketing research. The reasons are obvious. Unfamiliarity with the cultures and environment factors of the target countries will increase the difficulty of attaining comparability of data. It is advisable to have some similar features. “Comparability can be obtained if universals are adopted from other disciplines or by demonstrating equivalence of psychological concepts and data across cultural groups” (p8). Self-reference criterion (SRC) or the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values should be isolated by the researcher and its impact examined to attaining comparability. The list below describes what a researcher can do to account for environmental and cultural differences and to define the problem in comparable ways (p9):-
(1) Define the marketing research problem in terms of domestic environmental and cultural factors. This involves an identification of relevant domestic country traits, economics, values, needs or habits.
(2) Define the marketing research problem in terms of foreign environmental and cultural factors. Make no judgments. This involves an identification of the related traits, economics, values, needs or habits in the proposed market culture. This task requires input from researchers who are familiar with the foreign environment.
(3) Isolate the self-reference criterion (SRC) influence on the problem and examine it carefully to see how it complicates the problem. Examine the differences between steps 1 and 2. If differences are found, they can be attributed to the SRC.
(4) Redefine the problem without the SRC influence and address it for the foreign market situation. If the differences in step 3 are significant, the impact of the SRC should be carefully considered.
2. Develope an approach
There are three different approaches to conducting cross-cultural research listed by Malhotra et. al. and they are anthropological, sociological, and psychological perspectives.
3. Research design formulation
The research design formulation requires equivalence and comparability of secondary and primary data obtained from different cultures. Secondary data is termed as “more critical for cross-cultural” (p13) research than for domestic research. They highlighted one important source of cross-cultural secondary data which is ethnographic records describing various cultures. This data outlines a society's culture. Other research designs include qualitative research, survey methods, observational methods, questionnaire design, and others
4. Field work
Field work involves the researcher or interviewer going out to meet selected respondents and to record down the answers onto the questionnaire. Malhotra et.al. stated that “the quality of field work in cross-cultural research is affected by several factors including interviewer background, the interview and its setting, respondent background, and the cultural background” (p28). They also mentioned that the responses in a multicultural study may not be comparable if the sponsoring agency or interviewer is perceived as non-comparable. For example, sensitivity on matters of sex and family planning would best be conducted by a female interviewer with a female respondent.
5. Data analysis
The main objective is to be able to identify and measure differences and/or similarities from various samples. It will enhance validity when there are fewer rival explanations for the results of the study. Pertinent
issues “include data preparation, standardization, sample comparability, construct equivalence, the level of analysis, and avoiding common methodological fallacies” (p30).
6. Report preparation and presentation.
Reporting and interpreting data in a cross-cultural context can pose special problems. If researchers from one single culture were to interpret the data, it is possible for the researcher's own bias to affect the results or implications. To overcome such bias, it is “recommended that researchers from each country should interpret independently so that estimates of inter-interpreter reliability can be made” (p36).
Cross-cultural Research Methodology Framework
Cross-cultural issues have become a topic of interest among researchers worldwide because of the demand for marketing research data. In view of this, Cavusgil & Das (1997) have constructed a six-stage processing methodological framework for cross-cultural research. Their intention is to provide a simple methodology for the beginner in this type of research. The six-stages are described as domain determinant, evaluate equivalence, develop sampling design, develop instrumentation, data collection and data analysis and results. The framework includes feedback with sub-unit iterations. See Figure 1 in the Appendices.
Domain and Equivalence Issues
The cross-cultural researcher must clearly explicate or to explain in detail the theoretical domain of the research constructs as well as any emic nuances or assumptions specific to a particular culture in the concepts employed (p213-214). They continued by saying that “good research generally requires an underlying logic or theory”. Literature review must be conducted thoroughly at this stage. Conceptual equivalence deals with how constructs are expressed in the form of behaviours or attitudes in different cultures. They stressed that “inadequate attention to theoretical grounding and functional and conceptual equivalence can jeopardize a project irretrievably; since the research study is usually well under way before construct or design deficiencies are detected” (p214).
Sampling design and instrumentation are relatively controllable items and can be redressed by the researcher directly.
Instrumentation and data collection issues
The researcher has to address the issue of instrument equivalence and reliability, i.e. are the scale items, response categories and questions interpreted similarly across cultures (p217)?
Data analysis and results
Cavusgil & Das described that data analysis and results are dependent on a number of factors including sophistication of the chosen scale type, bivariate vs. multivariate method of data analysis and the use of factor analysis and congruency techniques (p218).
In conclusion, they hope that they have sketched out a user-friendly methodology for the cross-cultural research rookie.
Doing Research with Foreign Colleagues
Bournois & Chevalier (1998) highlighted quite a number of issues when different members of the research team from all parts of Europe congregated to undertake a research project together. There were representatives from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, The Netherlands, Britain, and France. This section aims to provide further explanatory notes in cross-cultural marketing research in a project-life cycle approach.
Bournois & Chevalier pointed out that to coordinate this meeting among several different nationalities; a common language must be used. In this case, English was the unanimous choice. For this reason, they encourage a mastery of the language because to be a project leader, fluency of the language is a must. English semantics can mean several things and they also emphasize that it is good to be familiar with all of them. Many heads do give good ideas but how to turn them into feasible ones is another question (p206). They described the working together as a project-life cycle which has five main stages.
1. Defining the project objectives
a. Getting the team started
b. Creating a sense of shared purpose and values
c. Clarifying the role of the project coordinator
“His mission in that context is crucial in managing the political/cultural and the technical/scientific variables. The principle of reality should be guiding his actions. Confronted with so many ambiguities, the temptation of the coordinator and some team members is to structure and to formalise the project too quickly; as if the agenda, the frequency of meetings, the division of labour, the detailed budgets were the only life jacket to swim into these international project waters” p(208).
2. Structuring the task and research methodologies
This area highlights that all countries do not value research methodologies in the same way.
a. Choosing between positivist versus constructivist approaches
b. Elaborating a common methodology
3. Data Collection
This is identified as a very risky and sensitive phase
a. Facing fragmentation
The project coordinator has very little control from now onwards due to language barriers and geographical distance. The national leaders will now take over the choice of data collection, choice of interviewers, and use of computer systems.
b. Developing autonomy and trust
Trust is one of the few leverages that can be used. You have to trust the local project leaders to provide reliable data input, processing, quality of
translations. It is the time to reap the benefits of the long discussions and debates.
4. Analysis and interpretation
This phase is undoubtedly the most exciting one for researchers. After the exhausting time of data collection, the verdict falls and tangible results appear.
a. Producing local reports
b. Striving to get an international report
“By experience, there is an under-exploitation of results. If comparing countries two by two appears rather realistic, how can you seriously compare ten countries or more in a limited amount of time, when budgets have often run short?” (p211).
5. Research Dissemination
This is a phase loaded with political aspects. Most of the time, researchers are obsessed with the previous stages (in particular 3 and 4) and they underestimate the importance of this last stage.
a. What use of the results?
b. Who publishes what?
This gets tricky when the results are to be published in highly regarded international journals. The language problem re-emerges again in terms of time and budget for translation. Almost 80 per cent of literature is in English (p212).
Examples of Cultural Differences between Australians and mainland Chinese
Lowe & Corkindale highlighted some interesting cultural differences between the Chinese in People's Republic of China and Australians who are termed as Anglo-Celtic (p845-847).
1) Australians have come to expect that family, marriage and children are instruments to satisfy individual, not institutional needs. The Chinese view “family” beyond the immediate members or “nuclear family”. Family welfare is more important than for an individual.
2) Chinese have a stronger respect for authority than most Australians.
3) A Chinese student is less likely to query what the teacher has to say than an Australian student because the Chinese values of to be polite, obeying the rules are ingrained behaviour patterns.
4) Opinion leaders for Chinese consumers include older people, political leaders, family elders and authoritarian types whereas Australians place higher values on youthfulness and ability.
Survey Translation Issues
The source language for the questionnaire must be confirmed and in this case, it would be English. From the source language, the translation will be towards the simplified Chinese form because the survey is to be conducted in China. Quality as mentioned earlier is important with constructs of correct phrase and wordings in the translation process. Of course, the main concern with translation is the meanings and usage that may be different in the UK and in China due to cultural norms and beliefs.
McGorry (2000) recommends that in order to have the best translation, “a researcher must immerse themselves into the culture of the ethnic group they are studying” (p75). This might mean literally living in the community group and observe and learn about them. This method is not always feasible and McGorry provided four procedures for translation. There are as follows (pp75-76):-
1. One way translation;
A direct translation into the target language
2. Double translation;
• ? The version in the original language is translated by a first translator into the target language.
• ? A second independent translator takes the results from the previous step and independently translates the instrument back to the original language.
3. Translation by committee
This type of translation process is completed by asking each of two or more individuals who are familiar with both languages in the study to translate the text instrument from the original language to the target language. And then the nearest translation will be chosen.
4. Decentering.
The original language instrument is not considered finalized until the entire translation process is completed. Therefore, if a translator believes that a grammatical structure or word or tense must be changed appropriately to fit the cultural group under study, the original instrument should also be changed to reflect these linguistic and cultural characteristics.
A sample leisure questionnaire is found in Table 2 in the Appendices.
Conclusion
International marketing research has seen a marked increase in demand and it has raised questions on methodology among researchers and academics. There is no standard or clarity in literature and Malhotra et. al. and Cavusgil et. al. attempt to address this issue. Cultural issues exist between countries and this has an impact on the quality of translations as well as marketing perceptions. Equivalence is a most important issue with construct bias, response bias and researcher bias having an influence on comparability of data. The project-life cycle with foreign researchers provided an insight into the workings of an international marketing research team. All these help make the study of international marketing research a fruitful endeavour if I were to take this as a career path.
References
Bibliography
Note: not disclosed
Appendices
Table 1. The research process and bias (van Kerk et. al., p356)
Stages in the marketing research process |
Source of bias |
Issues |
Prevalent types of bias |
I |
Problem formulation |
Concepts |
Purpose of the study |
Construct |
Category |
Function |
II |
Research design |
Operationalisation |
Type of study |
Construct |
Type of questions |
Instrument design |
Item selection |
Item |
Type of response format |
Method |
Translation |
Item |
Method |
Personal, mail, telephone |
Method |
III |
Sample selection |
Sampling |
Target population |
Method |
Sampling frame |
IV |
Data collection |
Fieldwork |
Procedures |
Interviewer selection |
Method |
Time frame |
V |
Data editing and coding |
Editing |
Data editing |
Item |
Coding |
Data coding |
Calibration |
VI |
Analysing and interpreting data |
Statistical procedures |
Table 2. Sample Leisure Questionnaire
RECREATION & LEISURE SURVEY
1. In general, how do you feel about the amount of time you have available to deal with your daily tasks? Would you say you …(READ)
1=always feel rushed even to do things you have to do
2=only sometimes feel rushed
3=almost never feel rushed
4=don't know/not stated
2. Which part of your day do you value more highly?
1=your work
2=your leisure time
3=both are equally important
4=don't know/not stated
3. Compared to 2 years ago, would you say you have
1=about the same amount of leisure time
2=more leisure time
3=less leisure time
4=don't know/not stated
LEISURE Activities that the respondent identifies doing
Activities you can do at home
___ watching TV/videos/DVD ___ reading
___ playing computer/video games ___ gardening
___ crafts or hobbies
Things you can do with your family or friends
___ visit museums/galleries ___ picnic
___ walking/hiking ___ tobogganing
___ ice skating ___ golf
___ bowling ___ attending festivals
___ attending events as a spectator
Things you can do by yourself or with others
___ attending a course ___ fishing
___ biking ___ weight training
___ performing arts (dance, music, drama) ___ personal fitness/aerobics
___ running/jogging ___ downhill skiing/snowboard
___ cross-country skiing ___ in-line skating/rollerblade
___ martial arts (judo, tae-kwan-do, etc.) ___ swimming
Sports you can do with others
___ tennis ___ football
___ volleyball ___ basketball
___ soccer ___ baseball/softball
___ ringette ___ gymnastics
___ice hockey ___ racquetball/squash
___badminton ___figure skating
b. Which activity is your personal favourite?________________
c. Which activity is most often taken part in by your household?__________________
d. What would you say are the most important benefits that you and members of your
household get from taking part in these activities?
(Interviewer Note: PROBE FOR UP TO 3 IDEAS and “dig down”: if
respondents says ‘fun' ask why it's fun; when they tell you ask them ‘why'
a second time; )
Bibliography
Note: Not disclosed
